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作者简介:

范丽伟(1978—),女,山东青岛人,中国石油大学(华东)经济管理学院教授,博士,博士生导师,研究方向为能源经济系统建模分析、数据挖掘与商务智能。

通讯作者:

通信作者: 周 鹏(1978—),男,山东诸城人,中国石油大学(华东)经济管理学院教授,博士,博士生导师,国家杰出青年科学基金获得者,研究方向为能源环境政策与管理。

中图分类号:F571

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1673-5595(2020)01-0001-10

DOI:10.13216/j.cnki.upcjess.2020.01.0001

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目录contents

    摘要

    电动汽车扩散是解决可再生能源电力消纳等问题的一种重要手段,受激励政策驱动作用明显。在系统梳理电动汽车激励政策的分类及内容的基础上,回顾该方向发表的重要文献,发现既有研究主要围绕政策效果评价、市场作用机制及未来政策调整优化方向来展开。进一步,归纳总结了电动汽车推广的主要阻碍因素,提出了未来电动汽车激励政策调整的着力点,并指出未来可在考虑区域异质性基础上设计更为精细化的电动汽车激励政策组合。

    Abstract

    Electric vehicle (EV) helps to resolve the excess supply of renewable electricity. Its diffusion is mainly driven by the incentive policies. The purpose of this paper is to provide an uptodate literature review of studies on EV policies. It starts from a classification of policy categories and contents, which shows that the existing studies mainly focus on policy effect evaluation, market mechanism and policy optimization. We also summarize and identify the key barriers which restrict EV diffusion and propose the direction for adjusting the incentive policies. It is suggested that future research can be carried out in designing more refined incentive policy combinations by considering regional heterogeneity.

    关键词

    电动汽车激励政策评价调整综述

  • 一、 引言

  • 可再生能源的大规模推广利用是促进能源系统低碳转型的重要途径,电动汽车的快速扩散则是解决可再生能源电力消纳等问题的重要手段。我国政府高度重视电动汽车产业发展。党的十九大报告提出构建市场导向的绿色创新体系,壮大节能环保产业、清洁能源产业;《2018年国务院政府工作报告》提出须深化供给侧结构性改革,推动新能源汽车产业发展。在政策激励方面,我国自2009年对指定范围实施电动汽车购置补贴开始,逐步采取了一系列措施促进电动汽车的推广;部分城市的燃油私家车限购政策也助推了电动汽车产业的快速发展。然而,国家电动汽车财政补贴不断退坡,给电动汽车产业提质降本带来较大压力。此外,限购城市电动汽车市场容量趋于饱和,国家逐步放宽或取消限购,未来限购政策对电动汽车推广的促进作用在削弱。从供给侧来看,受激励政策驱动,我国电动汽车制造商骤增,大多为初创企业且为市场追随者,创新能力及产品质量水平无法有效满足消费者需求。与此同时,“双积分”政策的实施将会催生更多企业进入电动汽车市场,可能会造成电动汽车产能过剩。

  • 显而易见,激励政策在我国电动汽车的推广过程中作用明显,但购置补贴政策退出、限购政策放宽、“双积分”政策接替等因素可能会给未来电动汽车产业的发展带来较大挑战。在学术界,国内外学者针对不同类型激励政策的作用效果评估等问题已经开展了大量的研究工作。本文在界定电动汽车激励政策分类与内涵的基础上,对已实施的电动汽车激励政策及其作用效果研究进行综述分析,识别当前情景下电动汽车推广的主要阻碍要素,展望未来研究的可行方向,以期为电动汽车政策研究者提供领域进展概览,并为相关政策的制定和完善提供决策依据。

  • 二、 国内外电动汽车激励政策概述

  • 为促进电动汽车大规模推广,世界各国建立了广泛的多边合作机制。2010年,电动汽车倡议(Electric Vehicle Initiative)由中国联合十多个国家共同发起,成为清洁能源部长级合作机制(Clean Energy Ministerial)下推动电动汽车在世界范围内扩散的重要力量1017年,EV30@30运动提出了至2030年电动汽车倡议成员国的电动汽车市场份额将占世界总份额30%的愿景2V30@30将从多个方面推进电动汽车的普及,例如,支持充电设施建设与布局,推动政策研究与信息交流,同时建立全球电动汽车试点城市项目(EV Pilot City Programme)等。其中,电动汽车试点城市项目旨在近五年内在全球范围内建成100个电动汽车友好城市3国有五所城市被列入试点城市名单中,分别为北京、上海、深圳、盐城、如皋。

  • 电动汽车倡议成员国已成为全球电动汽车推广的先驱。其中,中国连续四年电动汽车销量位居全球首位,美国次之,而挪威作为世界电动汽车市场份额的领先者2018年其市场份额为46%4动汽车市场的快速繁荣主要归因于各国采取多样且有针对性的政策,部分国家已建立相对稳定的激励政策体系。为充分理解电动汽车激励政策的内涵,下文将从电动汽车激励政策的类别、我国电动汽车激励政策内容、中外电动汽车激励政策对比三部分展开阐述。

  • (一) 电动汽车激励政策分类

  • 政策制定者的政策选择决策与模式具有一定的规律性。一些学者针对电动汽车激励政策演进的内在逻辑进行了研究,例如,李5中国电动汽车产业政策变迁划分为政府主导的宏观战略阶段、汽车厂商主导的行业规范阶段和消费者主导的汽车市场推广阶段。依据政策选择的模式,邓立治6出电动汽车产业发展的三种扶持政策模式分别为市场带动型、技术领先型和创新主导型。不同的政策模式可衍生出具体的政策工具,通过政策分类可以对政策工具进行归纳分析以得到一般化规律,其逻辑关系如图1所示。

  • 图1 政策分析与设计过程

  • 政策分类是政策评价及优化的基础。Rothwell7政策工具划分为供给型、需求型和环境型三类,此分类得到了学者们广泛认可。例如,谢青8鉴此分类方式对与中国电动汽车产业相关的 37 项中央政策文本进行了内容分析,发现随着产业发展,政策工具的使用呈现出从供给面到环境面再到需求面的不断完善。然而,当前政策分类方式并不统一,对电动汽车激励政策的分类亦是如此。表1总结了不同研究的政策分类,发现一般是从政策实施途径、实施环节以及政策功能的角度将电动汽车政策分为2~4类。

  • 表1 电动汽车政策分类

  • (二) 我国电动汽车激励政策内容

  • 我国对电动汽车推广的重点扶持可追溯到2009年,科技部、财政部、发展改革委及工业和信息化部(以下简称“四部委”)共同发起“十城千辆”工程,分三批在25个试点城市对电动汽车推广提供财政补贴。2012年,国务院印发《节能与新能源汽车产业发展规划(2012—2020年)》,将新能源汽车定义为采用新型动力系统、完全或主要依靠新型能源驱动的汽车,主要包括纯电动汽车、插电式混合动力汽车及燃料电池汽车18规划同时制定了节能与新能源汽车产业发展的五大目标,其中之一为到2020年纯电动汽车和插电式混合动力汽车生产能力达200万辆、累计产销量超过500万辆。此后,各级政府陆续出台大量激励政策,城市在电动汽车推广中的重要作用也日益显现。2013年11月及2014年1月,四部委分两批把88个城市作为新能源汽车的推广应用城市。这些城市在落实国家及省区政策的同时,纷纷出台相应激励政策以促进电动汽车的推广应用。

  • 过去十年,国家及省市政府出台并实施的电动汽车政策类型繁多,针对我国电动汽车激励政策的研究也不断涌现。就电动汽车激励政策内容而言,早期就有学者总结了我国2010年前的主要激励政策,并对“十城千辆”示范项目展开了调研分19随后,部分学者详实地阐释了补贴政9一些学者通过总结政策文件的形式对各级政府尤其是国家层面的政策变迁或政策内容予以诠13,20

  • 在已有研究的基础上,本文将进一步梳理归纳我国现有电动汽车激励政策类别及具体政策工具,以期增进对当前我国电动汽车激励政策内涵的理解。我们遵循图1的政策设计与分析思路,以我国电动汽车市场为例,梳理了我国电动汽车推广应用城市在2009—2018年间出台的334份电动汽车激励政策文件,并在此基础上对电动汽车激励政策工具进行梳理与归类。按政策工具功能及服务对象的不同,最终将激励政策归纳为供给侧类、消费侧类、保障类以及产业规划类。此外,按实施环节的不同,消费侧政策又可分为消费者采购政策及消费者使用政策;从宏观至微观,保障类政策被分为统筹监管政策、市场管理政策以及配套设施建设政策三类。电动汽车政策分类、政策子类及相应的政策工具如表2所示。从表2可以看出,我国电动汽车政策工具多样,作用对象广泛,服务链条较为完整,已覆盖电动汽车产业发展的多个方面。

  • 表2 电动汽车政策分类及工具

  • (三) 电动汽车激励政策的国内外对比

  • 考虑美国与挪威在电动汽车市场中的领先地位,本节在概述这两个国家的电动汽车激励政策基础上,将其与我国的相关激励政策做了简单对比。

  • 美国电动汽车销量世界排名第二,已建成相对稳定的激励政策体系,其激励政策主要包括联邦燃料经济和温室气体联合管理项目、加州零排放汽车(Zero Emissions Vehicle)计划、州级及联邦级电动汽车购买财政激励以及州级及地方充电设施建设支持政策21排放汽车计划由加州大气资源委员会于1990年出台,通过向汽车企业提供积分以鼓励零排放汽车产销,积分不达标的企业将受到处罚,同时积分可以进行交易,不达标企业可以通过购买积分达到标准。目前零排放汽车政策已成为推动电动汽车销售、减少温室气体排放的重要手段22国新能源汽车积分管理借鉴了美国零排放汽车积分管理制度,另外,与美国企业平均燃料经济法规相似,我国的企业平均燃料消耗量通过制定油耗目标,对未达标企业进行处罚,通过积分形式与新能源汽车积分并行管理,统称“双积分”政策23005年,美国《国家能源政策法案》规定购买混合电动汽车的消费者可享受所得税减免政策,此后多个州级政府开始实施此项政策24国政府对充电基础设施建设也较为关注,《2009年美国复苏与再投资法案》通过后,美国能源局开始对一定数量的充电站建设进行补贴,之后,部分州政府制定不同标准的充电基础设施建设补贴机制21学者通过政策分类将美国50个州的198项激励措施划分成七类:个人税收减免、车队税收减免、高承载车道使用特权、排放检测免除、注册费减免、实时电价及充电桩安装补贴25比表2中我国的激励政策,除高承载车道使用特权外的剩余六类激励政策在我国均已实施。目前我国部分城市已设立高乘载车道,但高承载车道使用特权政策当前并未向电动汽车倾斜。

  • 挪威自1970年开始培育本土电动汽车品牌,支持技术研发,目前已是欧洲第一大、全球第三大电动汽车销售国,且其电动汽车普及率世界第一4威政府对电动汽车市场采取较大力度的财政激励,贯穿需求侧购买与使用环节,且自1990年开始便对电动汽车销售免收注册费。至上世纪90年代末,电动汽车使用者可以在车位紧张、停车费较贵的停车场免费停车,同时可以免缴年度汽车牌照费,且在部分区域享受过路费减免政策。进入21世纪,挪威的激励政策愈趋完整,电动汽车消费者可享受免增值税及公交车道使用特权等政策。2009年成立交通能源局,负责交通领域节能减排政策的实26并于当年开始对充电基础设施建设实施财政支持;之后,对快充建设进行财政鼓励,并逐步完善插电混合动力汽车的财政激励措施。诸多财政激励为电动汽车使用者带来较大的成本优势,使消费者更加偏好电动汽车,是挪威电动汽车市场兴盛的关键因素27挪威相比,我国激励政策体系涵盖了挪威政府所采用的所有政策工具。虽然我国电动汽车销量领先,但市场份额仍不足5%,与挪威市场相比存在较大差距。这与我国经济文化特征、居民的认知与偏好、市场发展阻碍及政策效率效果等因素相关。

  • 综上,虽然各国政策工具类似,市场发展情况却有较大差别。未来,各国在制定本国政策及借鉴他国政策时,应结合各国自身特征,构建适合本国国情的政策工具与体系,同时应注重对政策效果的分析与反馈,通过实践的检验不断修正已有政策内容,以更有效地推动电动汽车的推广。

  • 三、 电动汽车激励政策效果分析

  • 电动汽车政策工具多样且有针对性,其激励效果如何决定了当前政策体系能否有效促进电动汽车推广。表3总结了针对18种政策工具激励效果的评价研究。就研究方法而言,学者多利用已有数据对政策有效性进行实证分24,25,30,33-35,37,39,40,42,43或从消费者偏好角度通过离散选择实验推断消费者选择偏32,38从系统角度结合情景分析来论证政策有效性的文章也较28,29,36,41,44从研究内容来看,学者对消费侧政策研究居多,既包括消费者购买类政策(如购置补贴、购置税减免等),也包括消费者使用类政策(停车费减免、过路费减免等)。与表2相对比,可以看出国内外学者研究的政策工具内容基本包含在本文总结的政策工具体系中,充分表明我国政策工具的多样性及政策体系的完备性。

  • 在研究结论上,不同学者对电动汽车购置补贴政策效果所持观点有同有异。大部分研究均证明不限行政策具有良好的推动效28,37,38而对于停车费减免政策的效果研究显示其激励作用并不显14,21一些学者认为购置补贴政策无31,32但Wang28为购置补贴取消会导致电动汽车销量骤降。Ou36对“双积分”政策的论述中,认为“双积分”政策能够有效推动电动汽车推广。Sierzchula35电动汽车大规模推广早期便对充电基础设施建设的积极作用进行了实证。总体来看,虽然由于数据、方法及研究对象的不同,学者对激励政策效果的评价结果并非完全一致,但对未来电动汽车激励政策的调整与优化具有一定的指导意义。

  • 表3 电动汽车激励政策效果总结

  • 四、 电动汽车激励政策调整的着力点

  • (一)电动汽车推广关键阻碍因素

  • 消费者对电动汽车的偏好受诸多因素影响,识别电动汽车推广的影响因素有利于政府有针对性地制定或调整电动汽车激励政策。因此,除对已有政策效果进行评价外,学术界针对电动汽车推广影响因素的研究也较多。Li45为电力生产中可再生能源占比、充电站数量、消费者受教育程度及人口密度会对电动汽车需求产生影响;Wang28究发现充电桩密度、燃料价格、道路优先权对电动汽车市场份额有积极影响;Figenbau46为电动汽车型号的增加、技术进步、价格降低都将激励电动汽车的销售;Zhang20过研究证明相对于提升电池容量而言,提升快充能力、降低生产成本、完善充电设施以及增加购买补贴等更能促进纯电动汽车的推广。

  • 结合以往的研究和经验,政府已采取了部分针对性激励政策。然而,电动汽车未全面推广部分归因于其推广过程中仍存在许多阻碍因素。有效识别阻碍因素将使未来政策设计的着力点更加明确,故本文梳理归纳了电动汽车推广及其产业发展中阻滞因素的相关研究,认为当前阻碍电动汽车推广的最关键的两个因素分别是里程焦虑与售价偏高。

  • 1. 里程焦虑

  • 里程焦虑用来强调汽车续驶里程不足以到达终点所带来的畏47是阻碍消费者购买电动汽车的重要因素之一。当前里程焦虑主要由三个因素导致:(1)电动汽车续驶里程48,49受限于电池技术,电动汽车一次完全充电的实际平均续驶里程约为100~200公里左右,主要适合短距离使用。(2)充电桩充电速度慢。根据电动汽车电池大小、电池的最大充电速率以及充电桩额定功率等因素的不同,电池充满电的时间大约在30分钟至10个小时左右。(3)充电桩建设数量不50充电桩建设投资大、回收期长,在电动汽车市场未完全打开的情况下,充电桩运营商投资充电桩建设的积极性不高,致使充电桩数量无法满足消费者需要。51

  • 增强动力电池续航能力能够有效缓解消费者里程焦虑。就消费者而言,消费者可通过调整自身充电习惯改善动力电池续航能力,如减少充电频率、放慢充电速率以及避免接近电池最大容量都会延长动力电池寿命、减少电池损耗,从而提高续航能力52政策角度,政府可以不断加强对动力电池研发与创新的支持力度,以促进动力电池续航能力改善,如《欧盟电池战略行动计划》中提出在已有25亿欧元支持的基础上,将再提供11亿欧元来支持与动力电池相关的研发与创新项目。4

  • 另外一个缓解里程焦虑的重要方式是大力建设充电站,我国政府已计划2020年前建成430万个私人充电桩以及50万个公共充电桩。其他一些国家对充电桩建设也给予政策支持,如加拿大联邦政府宣布五年内将为建设新的充电桩提供约10亿美元的财政支持4广泛建设充电站外,换电站建设也是缓解里程焦虑的重要方法。利用换电站,驾驶者可以在90秒的时间内将耗尽的动力电池换成完全充满的电池,这可以有效解决电动汽车续驶里程短及充电桩充电速度慢的问题49外,换电系统可使里程风险从驾驶者转移到换电站运营49从而减少消费者的里程焦虑。基于此,各国政府积极进行换电站建设,我国计划在2020年前建设1200个换电站4更好辅助换电站建设、运营与管理,学者从不同角度进行了研究,如Mak53过建立鲁棒优化模型分析了换电站的布局规划,Widrick54析了需求不确定情况下换电站电池的充放电最优策略。

  • 2. 售价偏高

  • 电动汽车售价偏高仍是当前阻碍电动汽车销售的一个关键因素,主要是由其高昂的电池成本造成的49着动力电池技术水平的不断提高,电池成本正在下52这对降低电动汽车售价起到了积极作用。此外,为降低电动汽车前端售价,包括加拿大、中国、欧盟、印度和美国等国在内的各国政府纷纷采取财政激励措4如印度政府计划对电动汽车和混合动力汽车提供14亿美元的补贴,补贴金额主要取决于电池容量;加拿大政府将对售价低于45万美元的电动汽车给予每辆5000美元的奖励。

  • 虽然电池成本有所下降,电动汽车前端成本依然较高,并在很大程度上抬高了其售价,从而阻碍了电动汽车销售49外,尽管政府通过补贴及税收优惠等相关财政机制激励电动汽车消费,但激励政策能否有效传递到消费者主要取决于其经济归宿55电动汽车市场中,企业骗补或故意抬高售价等行为屡见不鲜,导致补贴政策的经济归宿可能并非消费者,由此影响消费者对电动汽车的偏好,使其倾向于认为传统汽车性价比要高于电动汽车,从而导致购置补贴等财政激励政策失效。

  • (二)电动汽车激励政策调整方向

  • 在确定政策优化的着力点时,除了需识别电动汽车推广的关键阻碍因素,也需要借鉴已有的研究发现。表4给出了针对电动汽车激励政策调整方向的相关研究结论。表4显示,在设置电动汽车产业补贴时,应更加注重“供给侧”补贴,由向消费者提供补贴调整为向生产者提供;同时,补贴政策不应一成不变,政府须以动态方式调整补56,57关于财政补贴,有学者认为消费者购置补贴的作用效果并不明31,32我国政府已计划在2020年完全退出电动汽车购置补贴政策,在此背景下,转变补贴方向及进行动态补贴的思路有待借鉴。一些学者提出需要从充电设施、研发投入、电池回收等方面对电动汽车激励政策进行优20这有利于缓解里程焦虑,清除电动汽车中的阻碍要素。此外,也有学者从市场管10,63,64运营模65政策组织与实施体60-62方面提出了电动汽车激励政策的改进方向,认为应关注小众市场,重视共享模式的重要作用,同时要协同国家及地方的力量促进电动汽车的大规模推广。

  • 综合已有研究结论,未来电动汽车激励政策调整方向主要包括四方面:继续推进效果显著的政策;针对阻碍因素采取应对策略,积极消除消费者对于里程以及售价的担忧;加大对供给侧的支持力度,对企业研发和技术进步予以支持;完善电动汽车激励政策的保障体系,继续鼓励充电基础设施建设,健全市场管理类及统筹监管类政策。

  • 表4 电动汽车激励政策调整着力点

  • 五、 结论与展望

  • (一)总结发现

  • 有效的激励政策组合对电动汽车产业发展及电动汽车推广具有重要作用。为厘清电动汽车激励政策相关研究进展,本文在梳理相关政策文件及文献的基础上,总结了电动汽车激励政策的分类与具体内容,归纳了国内外学者对电动汽车政策有效性的评价结论,明确了阻碍电动汽车推广的两大关键因素,最后综合已有研究结论阐述电动汽车激励政策未来的调整方向。

  • 通过对文献的梳理归纳发现:(1)自2017年开始,与电动汽车激励政策相关的研究大量出现。最初,学者主要侧重于电动汽车激励政策的效果评价,而之前的研究多关注对国内外相关政策的梳理以及补贴政策;当前,对电动汽车激励政策的研究已转向政策评价、市场作用机制以及未来电动汽车政策的优化方向等多个方面;部分研究开始在微观层面针对某单一政策进行更有针对性的研究。(2)政策工具多样化,且基本覆盖电动汽车产业发展链条的各个方面;各国政策工具类似,但实施效果存在差异;部分政策失灵,学者们的结果并不完全一致;里程焦虑与售价偏高是两大关键阻碍因素;供给侧政策及保障类政策的落实愈发重要。

  • (二)不足与展望

  • 电动汽车政策的研究工作大多集中在国家或区域层面,针对省、市层级政策的研究较少。充分发挥中央政策和地方政策的联合作用更利于电动汽车的推广与发60地方电动汽车激励政策的实施效果将直接影响各国电动汽车未来发展与推广的形势。因此,地方政策体系建设与完善不可或缺,针对城市政策优化的研究可能会成为未来的一个研究热点。此外,国内外学者对区域异质性的关注较少,由于各地区自身特征不同以及当地消费者的消费理念不同,其适用的政策工具与体系也将有很大差异。因此,有必要将异质性内涵及其对电动汽车推广的影响机制纳入电动汽车激励政策分析及设计。

  • 政策体系由多种相互关联的政策单元构成,并与社会环境之间相互作用。当前研究主要关注了某单一政策的影响,从系统角度对政策组合机制的研究相对不足。现有研究中,Melton66于政策强度及生效时间建立了政策组合的评价框架;Bakker67过对城市电动汽车政策的激励效果、效率及可行性进行分析,发现两种有效且具有可行性的政策组合。政策组合情景比单一政策情景更加有44充分考虑政策间的合力与牵制更具有现实意义,未来有必要从政策组合的角度研究电动汽车激励政策优化策略。此外,基于现实情景对单一政策调整方案进行量化研究也将有力推动政策体系的改进,是未来值得探索的一个方向。

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